Only a Game

Rational

The expression of the Rational temperament is related to a need for the mastery of concepts, a desire for understanding, and a drive for competence. Those who strongly express this pattern of emotional response strive to discover the underlying principles of the universe, and may go on to develop theories by which to encapsulate their understanding. It is the driving pattern behind science, philosophy, venture capitalism, science fiction and the process of game design. 

Please read the Statistical Disclaimer before proceeding (which also includes the copyright notices). Remember that what is provided here is effectively a detailed definition of an adjective, ‘Rational’, which has been defined in line with a psychological model.

Conversion from Myers-Briggs Typology 

To anyone familiar with the Myers-Briggs inventory, the Rational temperament is expected to be the primary Temperament pattern for any preference code containing NT (Intuitive and Thinking preferences), and a supporting pattern for any code containing ST (Sensing and Thinking preferences).

1. Profile 

In the Introduction to Temperament Theory, we saw how the Rational temperament was related to Abstract language use, a Pragmatic approach to taking action and a focus on Structure. We will begin by reviewing these three axis in the specific context of the Rational temperament. Throughout this piece we shall be referencing the work of David Keirsey, marked [K], and his student Linda Berens, marked [B] (complete references are provided in the disclaimer). Where quotes talk of “a Rational” as a type of person, they have been rewritten to talk of people expressing Rational as a pattern, i.e. the use of ‘Rational’ as a noun has been rewritten such that it is used as an adjective.

Abstract language use reflects a mind more absorbed in ideas than in the tangible elements of daily life: 

[People expressing Rational] talk little of what is observable and much of what is imaginable. They are inclined to speak more of what can be seen only with the mind’s eye, conceptual things rather than perceptual things, ideas rather than objects… In conversation, [they] try to avoid the irrelevant, the trivial, and the redundant. They will not waste words, and while they understand that some redundancy is necessary they still are reluctant to state the obvious, or to repeat themselves on a point, limiting their explanations and definitions because they assume that what is obvious to them is obvious to others. [K] 

The Rational pattern is also associated with precision in language:

[People expressing Rational] are careful… to avoid errors of sequence or category… For example, it is a mistake to say that “there were weeds among the plants” because weeds are plants, the latter being the category that weeds belong to. [They] frequently note such trivial errors of category in others’ speech, but they rarely comment on them. However, let the error occasion contradiction in an argument being made, and [they] are compelled by their very nature to point out the error.

Many [such people] are obsessed with speculative enquiry, so their speech tends to be laced with assumptions and presuppositions, probabilities and possibilities, postulates and premises, hypotheses and theorems. In such speech data plays only a supportive and secondary role. [K]

Berens summarises this approach to Abstract language as follows: 

In the Rational pattern, abstract language is usually… precise and specific with the goal of increased clarity leading to knowledge… They tend to be sceptical and highly value precision in language. [B] 

Abstract language is common to the Idealist pattern as well as the Rational pattern, but while the influence of the Rational temperament is rooted in precision and understanding, as expressed in (say) scientific writing, the expression of the Idealist temperament in language is more prone to abstractions that are open to diverse interpretation, as in the symbolism and metaphor of (say) poetry.

The second aspect of the basic profile is a bias towards a Pragmatic approach to taking actions (or a utilitarian attitude to tool usage). Keirsey views this attitude as being rooted in a desire for efficiency:

[People expressing Rational] are interested in efficient operations. If a given operation promises to be too costly for the results it gets, that is, inefficient though effective, [they] will look for operations that are likely to take less effort to get the same result. 

He notes:

[Such people are attracted to] what might be called “min-max” solutions, those that bring about maximum results for minimum effort. Minimum effort not because they are lazy – this they could never be – but because wasted effort bothers them so much. [K] 

His description of Rational pragmatism borders upon the megalomaniacal:

[People expressing Rational] are wont to think of themselves as the prime movers who must pit their utilitarian ways and means against custom and tradition, in an endless struggle to bring efficiency and goal-directedness to enterprise, an attitude regarded by many as arrogant. But if this be arrogance, then at least it is not vanity, and without question it has driven [people strongly influenced by the Rational temperament] to engineer the technology upon which civilization is based. [K] 

Berens account emphasises how Rational pragmatism provides a sense of self-control and mastery:

For the Rational pattern, pragmatic roles ensure a focus on the overall strategy and vision and give a sense of mastery and self-control… [They] tend towards pragmatic, utilitarian actions with a technology focus. [B] 

This drive for mastery, and desire to remain in control, produce a fairly common pattern of behaviour among those who express Rational strongly: they tend to participate solely in activities where they can excel. This sometimes seems to be highly competitive, but in general terms it is not that the individual in question is determined to win (although some undoubtedly will be!) but rather that their desire to remain in control of any situation makes them uncomfortable when they are not capable of competence. This can be seen as another expression of Rational pragmatism: let everyone attend to whatever they are best at doing.

The Artisan pattern shares this pragmatic focus and desire for independent action with the Rational pattern, but for people expressing Artisan the focus is more upon the freedom to act according to the needs of the moment. In essence, the Artisan pattern’s pragmatism is more focussed on the immediate present, while the Rational pattern’s pragmatism tends to take a more expansive time-independent perspective. 

The third and final aspect of the basic Rational profile is a focus on Structure:

In the Rational pattern, the structural attention goes to the abstract and multidimensional, as in logic and matrices, coordinates, and organizing principles. Rational structures provide implementation strategies, and at the same time they provide ways to catalogue and master the principles of how the world operates. The goal is for all to learn to be more competent and efficient within the system. [B] 

Once again, we can see how this description fits well with the nature of the scientific endeavour, which is also focussed on uncovering the underlying structure of the universe. However, not everyone who expresses the Rational temperament strongly will necessarily lean towards the scientific – any situation involving the organisation of complex systems (such as the internal operations of a corporation) will also suit this general focus on how things are structured.

The focus on Structure is shared with the Guardian pattern, but the focus of those expressing Guardian is generally rules and responsibilities – about defining what is appropriate or what can be expected – whereas the Rational pattern is more associated with systemic structures. Indeed, systems are at the very heart of the Rational temperament, as we shall see from examining the type of intelligence associated with this pattern. 

2. The Strategic Intellect

According to Temperament Theory, each of the patterns is associated with a particularly kind of intelligence. The Rational temperament is related to strategic thinking: 

Strategy has to do with identifying the ways and means necessary and sufficient to achieve a well-defined goal. But not just any goal is of interest to [people expressing Rational]; invariably the goal that [they] set for themselves is increasing the efficiency of systems. [Some] concern themselves mainly with social systems, like families and companies, while others are concerned with organic systems, like plants and animals, and still others with mechanical systems, like computers and aircraft and automobiles. [K] 

This description rather overstates the importance of efficiency to strategic thinking, but Keirsey’s general position is that the strategic intellect is most interested in science, technology and systems in general. Berens presents a somewhat broader picture:

[People expressing Rational strongly] tend to focus on patterns and “think systems”, both technical and social, and move with ease from the big picture to the minute details of ideas and situations. With such a versatile focus, they often excel at design, schematizing, reasoning, strategising, analysis, synthesis, forecasting, trend analysis, logic, and problem solving… [They] come into a situation with an almost immediate understanding of the overall system, how it functions and the factors at work… Figuring something out means finding more to explore at a deeper level, with their eagerness to explore new or controversial areas tempered by the need for verification, proof, or performance. [B] 

The strategic intellect is also inherently connected with a degree of scepticism – a cautious attitude towards whatever is proposed:

One must doubt [says the archetypical person expressing Rational] for error lurks in what appears true just as what appears false. Best therefore to take a long and careful look at any proposed method or objective, otherwise those inevitable errors of order and organization are likely to go undetected… [K] 

Berens also sees doubt as a key theme for strategic thinking:

[People expressing Rational] cannot help but play with ideas and test them. With expertise, [they] can introduce radical and insightful changes with ease… With their analytical and sceptical point of view, they can find themselves doubting anything and everything. [B] 

In general terms, strategic thinking can be understood as highly complex problem solving. Faced with a well-defined goal, the strategic intellect can identify the ways and means to achieve that goal as best as is possible from the available information – complexity is rarely a limitation. The core competence of those who express the Rational temperament lies in assessing and abstractly analysing situations as completely as is necessary for the goal at hand (being sure to examine all appropriate contingencies, and identify all possible influencing factors) before forming a theory or designing a process that will implement that goal.

Examples include devising scientific experiments and the formulation of scientific hypothesis, the analysis of market patterns and creation of collective investment schemes, the creation of consistent imaginary worlds in science fiction (or fantasy), and both the design of complex game systems – such as many types of videogames and board games – and the discovery of the best solutions to the problems presented in the play of such games. 

(I have not yet conducted a research programme to prove that the Rational temperament correlates with the role of the game designer, but anecdotal evidence I have already collected firmly supports this supposition. At this point, I consider it a strong hypothesis).

3. Motivations 

Those who express the Rational temperament as their primary pattern generally display a strong desire for autonomy, tending towards libertarian or even anarchistic political beliefs, or at the very least a desire to be their own master in their workplaces:

To feel good about themselves, [those who express Rational strongly] must look upon themselves, and be seen by others as ingenious, autonomous and resolute… [They] pride themselves on their ingenuity in accomplishing the many and varied tasks they set their minds to… As much as possible, at times even regardless of the consequences, [they] desire to live according to their own laws, to see the world by their own lights, and they respect themselves in the degree that they act independently, free of all coercion… [K] 

Berens tracks the root of this need for autonomy to a desire for situations that provide the capacity for independent thought:

[They] have a high tolerance for complexity and are often surprised by others’ resistances to problem solving. Their independence of thought leads to a need for autonomy in the workplace… They most admire will power and genius, the wizards and inventors of the world, and they despise redundancy, incompetence and weak will. They are their own worst critics and are often stressed by a fear of incompetence, loss of control, and helplessness. Rigid, routine, dull environments offend them and may drive them away. [B] 

The theme of will power appears intimately connected with the Rational pattern – those that express it frequently do not understand why other people don’t simply behave ‘sensibly’ (a judgement made relative to their own models of the world), sometimes chalking up the differences in other people’s behaviour to stupidity. This view can be held with quite irrational strength: those that express Rational as a primary pattern are rarely able to feel confidence except when they can be resolute:

[They] are self-confident in so far as they sense in themselves a strength of will or an unwavering resolution. [They] believe they can overcome any obstacle, dominate any field, conquer any enemy – even themselves – with the power of their resolve. [K] 

The capacity to derive self-confidence from certainty produces behaviour that can be quite frustrating to other people when it is not tempered by prudence. A person strongly influenced by the Rational temperament will tend to use their strategic skills to assess situations in as complete a fashion as they can, exploring and eliminating all doubts such that they can then form a model about which they can be resolute. But the process which provides this confidence is interior to that individual, and may depend upon assumptions which others may not take for granted.

This behaviour represents the motivating force behind scientific scepticism, and also the reason that so many people who express Rational tend towards atheism – a metaphysical view about which one can be more resolute, since most religiously motivated systems of metaphysics include some element of doubt or uncertainty. (This connection should be considered hypothetical, but would be comparatively easy to investigate). 

All of this represents the degree of confidence that someone influenced by the Rational pattern places in their own powers of reason (and not necessarily the reason of others!) In essence, the Rational temperament seems to be concerned with creating abstract structural models with which to understand the world:

The only thing [people strongly expressing Rational] trust unconditionally is reason – all else they trust only under certain conditions… [They] yearn for achievement… [with] a gnawing hunger to achieve whatever goals they set for themselves… [They] are on the lookout for knowledge… [Their] search for knowledge has two objectives: they must know how to as well as know about… By knowing about and knowing how to, [they] increase their capability to predict and to control events… and they persist in their search for models and maps, for paradigms and algorithms, with which to construe and attack [the problems they have chosen to tackle]. [K] 

Berens relates this striving to understand with the core theme of mastery:

The [Rational-expressing person’s] core needs are for mastery of concepts, knowledge and competence. [They] want to understand the operating principles of the universe and to learn or even develop theories for everything. They value expertise, logical consistency, concepts and ideas, and seek progress. [B] 

‘Knowledge’ in this context should not be misunderstood as meaning something akin to ‘trivia’ (which is more a concern of people expressing the Guardian temperament). What is being referred to is a kind of systemic knowledge – an attempt to model systems, not an attempt to memorise ‘facts’. Furthermore, the domains that any individual concerns themselves with will often be restricted: as mentioned before, those that express Rational strongly prefer to only participate when they can excel, and in the context of knowledge this often means there are fields where they see themselves as having expert knowledge, and domains about which they have no interest. It is extremely common for those who express Rational to have a circle of friends who share a common domain of knowledge

4. Problems 

Everyone is stressed by different circumstances; one of the advantages of looking at behaviour in terms of the patterns of Temperament Theory is the capacity to identify different stressing factors that relate to the patterns.

According to Berens, those who express the Rational temperament strongly are stressed by feelings of powerlessness (including facing an activity for which the individual feels incompetent). Signs of stress relating to this pattern include obsessive behaviour, or a state of almost robotic mindlessness. This stress can be alleviated by reassuring such a person’s confidence – perhaps by engaging in an activity they know they are highly competent at – or by getting them involved in a new project. 

A specific problem that results from an overactive strategic intellect is paranoia. Since strategic thinking is concerned with identifying contingencies and factors, when this is intelligence is not given a task it can set to work identifying things to worry about:

Even though they know some things must happen of themselves, [people strongly expressing Rational] can dread this loss of control. This is why so many [such people] turn out to develop unreasonable fears, especially of germs and other forms of filth, something they have no control over. [K] 

In my own experience, I have not encountered this mysophobia in people expressing the Rational temperament, although there are certainly fictional expressions of this in characters such as Niles Crane in Frasier. However, other forms of phobia, or at least paranoid discomfort, are not uncommon, such as fear of flying as a passenger. More commonly, Rational paranoia can manifest in the instantiation of hypothetical scenarios as explanations for otherwise unexplained events. Coupled with the tendency of those expressing Rational to become self-confident in certainty, this can lead to interpersonal conflict – especially when the hypothetical scenarios imply blame where objectively none exists.

However, in the absence of this self-confidence born of resolution, those expressing Rational easily fall into depression, especially as regards their own accomplishments:

[People who express Rational may] demand so much achievement from themselves that they often have trouble measuring up to their own standards. [They] typically believe that what they do is not good enough, and are frequently haunted by a sense of teetering on the edge of failure. This time their achievement will not be adequate. This time their skill will not be great enough. This time, in all probability, failure is at hand.

Making matters worse, [they] tend to ratchet up their standards of achievement, setting the bar at the level of their greatest success, so that anything less than their best is judged as mediocre… Constant self-doubt and a niggling sense of impending failure [are not uncommon experiences]. [K] 

Another cause of depression among those who express Rational is the sense of isolation that can result from accepting that one’s models of the universe cannot be shared:

To [people expressing Rational] events aren’t of themselves good or bad, favourable or unfavourable. It’s all in the way one looks at things… all is relative to one’s frame of reference… [this can also give them] a solipsistic view of the world, [a belief] that others… cannot really share our consciousness, cannot know our mind, cannot feel our desires and emotions, much as they might wish to. Each of us is alone in an envelope of consciousness, marooned, as it were, on the earth as its sole inhabitant. [K] 

This relativism is an ironic counterpoint to the problems of certainty associated with this Temperament. It seems that those who express Rational are wont to fall prey to thinking in terms of extreme positions – either certainty, or total doubt. Either objectivism or relativism. Finding a balance point between such extremes is a challenge perhaps best addressed by individuals dominated by the Rational pattern taking the time to explore how their other temperament patterns can be expressed in a supporting role.

Conclusion 

The Rational temperament is defined as abstract pragmatism with a focus on systems. It drives those affected by it to seek mastery and competence, and often to avoid those areas where they cannot be capable. The strategic intellect associated with this pattern is capable of analysing complex situations and devising models or processes in order to reach goals. This intellect appears to drive both the scientific endeavour and the field of game design.

Stressed by feelings of powerlessness, the Rational temperament is also associated with paranoia and depression when it is out of balance. Caught between a sceptical desire to examine all doubts carefully and a self-confidence born from resolute will, the powerful strategic skills of those who express this pattern strongly should be tempered by an understanding that their way is not the only way one might think or act. Nonetheless, when people have complex problems that need solving, it is those that express Rational most strongly that should be turned to for assistance. 

Do you recognise yourself in this pattern? Feel free to share your perspective in the comments. Don’t recognise yourself? Check out the other three Temperament patterns and see if they fit you better. For more information, see BestFitType.com or check out the books referenced here.

Note: If you have any comments specifically regarding justifications or criticisms of Temperament Theory, please use the comments to the post entitled Justifications and Criticisms, which has been set aside for that express purpose. Thank you!

The opening image is Though Only for a Moment, by Todd Bellanca, which I found here. As ever, no copyright infringement is intended and I will take the image down if asked.

Statistical Disclaimer

This disclaimer is intended to accompany each of the posts about the Temperament Theory patterns, and includes the various copyright notices required.

Temperament Theory is a scientific model constructed at a statistical level: the model is based upon observations made across a wide population of case studies, and collects the common elements in these observations to form its four patterns.

When dealing with statistical science, it is important to remember that reasoning in the general does not allow us to make firm statements about the specific. For instance, most university students drink alcohol, but knowing that this is a statistically valid observation does not allow me to know whether an individual university student drinks alcohol – they might be teetotal for religious or for health reasons, or they might not like alcohol. 

When using Temperament Theory to assess one’s own personality, or the personality of someone you know, the model is no longer being used in a directly scientific context. Instead, it is being used as part of a subjective process of discovery. A parallel can be made with psychiatry in the sense of using scientific models to guide a process of discovery, except in the latter case a greater emphasis is being made on the attempt at objectivity. One seldom has an objective perspective on one’s own life.

Perhaps the most useful way to think about the terms of Temperament Theory is simply as an addition of four adjectives to the language you use when talking about behaviour. ‘Rational’, ‘Idealist’, ‘Artisan’ and ‘Guardian’ are adjectives describing patterns of emotional response. In much the same way that you can apply a subjective adjective such as ‘blue’ to a colour you see, you can apply a subjective adjective such as ‘Rational’ to a person’s behaviour. 

Copyright Notices

The following copyright notices apply to all Temperament articles on this blog:

All quotes marked [K] are taken from Please Understand Me II by David Keirsey (Prometheus Nemesis Book Company 1998, ISBN 1-885705-02-6).

All quotes marked [B] are taken from Understanding Yourself and Others: An Introduction to Temperament 2.0 by Linda V. Berens (Telos Publications 2000, ISBN 0-9664624-4-0).

All references to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test or MBTI should be understood as references to trademarks of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust, owned by Consulting Psychologists Press.

In all cases, the use of copyrighted material or trademarked terms in this post does not represent a challenge to the intellectual property rights of the respective owners.

One Down...

Finally, I have finished the first of my drafts for the Temperament pattern descriptions I've been working on. It's been a lot more work than I expected, and I'm considering reducing my number of blog posts during the week to free up more time to work on the remaining three. It's also longer than I would have liked, but it would take me even more time to shorten it, alas.

The first one, on the Rational temperament, will go up shortly. I choose to write this one first because - given the bias of my particular writings - it's highly likely that anyone who reads and enjoys my blog expresses the Rational temperament to some degree. However, it may not be your primary pattern so bear in mind there are three other descriptions to follow. Please read them all before drawing any firm conclusions.

Also, I moved the discussion of Rational play from this piece and into a seperate post - Strategic Players - which I will be working on next week (you won't need to have read the piece on Rational to follow this more game design focussed piece). I'm not sure if I should post all four Temperaments before posting any of the player profiles - I'm not sure I can wait that long.

Okay. Let's get this piece out the door...

Enjoy your weekends!

Recommended

Next Generation has an article up by Ernest Adams entitled 50 Books for Everyone in the Game Industry. I'm honoured that he has decided to include both my non-fiction books in the list - my game design book with my friend and colleage Richard Boon, and the game writing book I edited for the IGDA Game Writers' SIG (both plugged on the sidebar here). Now Ernest is not necessarily unbiased in this regard, since he contributed to both, but he is a highly ethical individual and wouldn't recommend these books if he didn't think they were worthwhile. (He doesn't plug his own books in the list, you'll notice).

The list also contains all manner of books I would recommend myself, including Sheri Graner Ray's Gender Inclusive Game Design (short but eye-opening), Caillois' Les Jeux est les Hommes (my favourite game design book that isn't about game design at all), and Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces (I prefer his later work, but his writing on mythology is unparalleled).

Since Ernest couldn't plug his own books, I will do it for him. Firstly, for people who are interested in a career in games development, there is Break Into the Games Industry: How to Get a Job Making Video Games, which will suit anyone with absolutely no idea how to begin a career in games. Secondly, there is Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on Game Design, which takes a broad genre-based look at game design, ideal for anyone starting out in the field, and anyone looking for a coherent examination of the game design process. Lastly, there is a new expanded version of this book, retitled Fundamentals of Game Design, which I haven't seen yet but which I understand expands the content significantly to create a text book suitable for a course on game design. I look forward to seeing it soon.

Don't forget to check out Ernest's book recommendations at the Next Generation website!

Albino Squirrel

In all my years of squirrel-watching, I have never before seen a white squirrel. I spotted this one in South Croydon Recreation Ground; I was on my way to catch a train, so alas I didn't have time to get a better photo. He was chasing a grey around the park when I saw him, apparently fitting in with his social group without a problem. (I'm assuming 'he', as a male squirrel will chase another male in competition or a female for mating, but females are generally pursued rather than pursuer).

Albinism affects mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish, suggesting it could date back as far as the Silurian, some 450 million years ago. It is the result of a recessive gene, and has a low rate of incidence. Albino animals can be quite healthy, although the disruption of natural camouflage can be a severe disadvantage in the wild. This urban albino squirrel will probably have no particular problems in his life, as predatory birds are rarely a problem for squirrels who live in large cities, and the most common cause of death is road accidents. I hope I will have a chance to see him again next time I'm in London.

Our Latest Adventure

For the last six years, my wife and I have lived here: South Manchester in the United Kingdom, on the edge of Europe (viewed here from 35,000 feet). We moved here after getting married, and have enjoyed a grand adventure with our friends. However, last Friday we were at the US Embassy in London for the final stage of the visa application process, procuring the necessary clearance to allow me to live in the United States.

Sometime in the next few months, we will be moving here: Knoxville, Tennessee, in the United States of America (also viewed from 35,000 feet). This is where my wife lived before we got married, and we have many friends who live here looking forward to our impending return - not to mention her family, living in a "log mansion" a few hours drive to the west. This is the location for our new adventure!

All that stands between us and the transatlantic move is the sale of our house, pictured here (it's the second one on the south side of the road, counting from the top left of the image). It's going to be hard to leave our friends in the United Kingdom behind, but all things change in time, and I expect we'll be back in Europe as often as we can. If nothing else, I should be over on business quite often, as International Hobo is more international than ever right now.

I'm about to begin a strange new life on the other side of the world...

Images copyright 2006 Europa Technologies and The GeoInformation Group.

Absentia

Back next week. In the meantime, let me just note that my ongoing battle to control my name in Google is still blocked by some track and field athlete at MIT who shares my name. I cannot shift him from the top spot on my Google name search - I guess I just can't beat the superior connectivity of a famous university. Have fun everyone!

Sufi

When kulfi vendors are spotted on the streets of Rusholme at night, one can be sure that Ramadan is underway. During this time of fasting, Muslims exercise self-control during daylight hours – eating, drinking, smoking and sex must all wait until sunset. To celebrate this holiest of months in the Islamic calendar, I present this piece on the Muslim mystical tradition of Sufism.  

One of the most famous quotes concerning the nature of Sufism belongs to an unknown Sufi Master who said: “There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take, for instance, a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with one’s own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God.”

All Muslims base their faith on two simple statements, known as the shahadah: 

There is no god but God
Muhammad is the Prophet of God 

The meaning of these testimonies to a practicing Sufi is not what might initially be expected, however. 

The first testimony, ‘There is no god but God’ should not be misunderstood as a statement of narrow monotheistic territorialism. In fact, this concept has much in common with the Hindu notion of Brahman, which is to say, it can be seen as a pantheistic statement – all that exists is an expression of God (or Allah, in Arabic). 

To the Sufi, this statement expresses the concept of Unity of Being; that which annihilates all multiplicity. Viewed from the perspective of this statement God is both immanent and transcendent, and all things are part of God. Indeed, from the viewpoint of Sufi metaphysics, the universe in every instant returns to and is renewed by God – it is as if the existence of time and space is merely the expression of the divine nature of God.

Through the Unity of Being, the Sufi seeks to eliminate all notions of duality (a process with much in common with certain schools of Buddhism, such as Ch’an or Zen Buddhism) – there can be no self, because all is God. From this perspective, the very goal of Sufism is to gather all multiplicity into unity. Thus the ultimate meaning of the first testimony to a Sufi is the realisation that all is reflected in the mirror of one’s own being; that nothing can be separated from God since everything is God. 

This idea is also expressed in the Sufi attitude towards other religions. Every spiritual path is considered to emphasise a particularly aspect of the Truth. For example, Christianity emphasises love, Taoism emphasises unity, while to the Sioux importance is placed upon self-renunciation. Islam itself is considered to emphasise knowledge. Hidayat Inayat-Khan of the International Sufi Movement wrote of the Sufi attitude to other religions: “Sufism is an attitude of inner sympathy towards all beliefs. All religions are Sufi religions as long as they recognize the limits inherent in any speculative interpretation of Truth.” It is in this manner that I identify myself as a Sufi.

The second testimony, ‘Muhammad is the Prophet of God’, expresses what is known as the Universal Prototype. In essence, Muhammad is an individual who in form manifests all the possibilities of humanity – he combines the expression of the Divine (through revelation) with human nature (by marrying and having children). Ibn ’Arabi says: “The Universal Prototype stands in the same relation to God as the pupil which is the instrument of vision to the eye. Through the Universal Prototype, God becomes conscious of Self in all the Divine Aspects. The Universal Prototype is the eye of the world, whereby the Absolute sees its own works.”

Another way of looking at this is that before the existence of humanity, the universe was unpolished, unreflective, and unconscious of the Divine. By its very sentience, mankind serves to polish the mirror of the universe - the Sufi mystic thus aspires to become the instrument by which the Divine can have a vision of Self in another form. Once the mystic becomes empty of Self he or she becomes capable of reflecting the Divine to the Divine. (The parallel with the mystic traditions of Buddhism which equally seek to banish the self is quite striking). 

Conceptually, the process by which one becomes Sufi is the mystic quest, which can be compared to a personal expression of the Heroic Monomyth, a pattern identified across all mythologies by the scholar Joseph Campbell. It begins by awakening to awareness that the phenomenal world conceals the essence of the Divine, followed by the call – which for this path is contained in the shahadah. The mystic is initiated, and finds a guide (for although a few become Sufi independently, most Sufi study under a master thus continuing a chain of transmission which is said to go back to the Prophet Muhammad himself). 

Once initiated, the mystic passes through a gateway away from the everyday world of the phenomenal, placing them in a realm of symbols – and it is here that they may place their psyche in danger. The perils on this path are traditionally represented by demons (jinn) and dragons. By entering a world of symbols, one becomes open to transformation – but one must be certain that the cause of this transformation is God. Ultimately, the “Arc of Ascent” becomes concluded, and the “Arc of Descent” begins, through which the mystic returns to the everyday phenomenal world. All that changes is the mystic, who is now Sufi.

(To anyone unfamiliar with mysticism, this description may sound like absolute nonsense – while to anyone familiar with mystic traditions, the pattern will likely seem quite natural. In psychological terms, all mystical experience can perhaps be considered a form of deconstructionism).

In terms of the open practice of Sufism, there are many forms of invocation (dhikr or zikr) that are more tangible than this rather abstract “mystic quest”. The most famous expression of this is perhaps the dances of the Mevlevi, or “whirling dervishes” who express the “Arc of Ascent” – drawing closer to the perfection of God – through an ecstatic, dizzying dance. There are many forms of invocation involving drums, singing and dancing, and each Sufi order has its own rituals for expressing dhikr, many of which are lively and magnificent expressions of spirituality. This is balanced by more introspective forms of invocation, such as those involving chanting, incense, meditation or trances. 

The spread of Islam by Sufis has been entirely peaceful, and took the teachings of Muhammad to many regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, Indonesia, the Indian province of Bengal and neighbouring Bangladesh. The Islamic cultures formed in this way have tended towards syncretism and tolerance, reflecting the Sufi belief that each religion reflects a different aspect of God (or Truth). Of course, Sufism is not the only peaceful expression of Islam, and the vast majority of the world’s 1.4 billion Muslims reflect Muhammad’s teaching that violence is only acceptable in self-defence or in direct opposition of oppression.

Neither is Sufism in decline. Although formal statistics are not available, estimates reported by the BBC place the number of practicing Sufi in Iran at between two and five million (compared to around 100,000 prior to the revolution of 1979). The International Association of Sufism estimates some 20% of the world’s Muslims hold Sufi beliefs, which would mean the number of Sufi in the modern world matches the population of the United States. 

In a modern world increasingly seeking ways to move beyond the prejudices and hostilities of history, Sufi beliefs represent one way Muslims can position their faith as part of a wider spiritual perspective. Even to a non-Muslim, Sufi philosophy presents a gateway to a more tolerant practice of religion, and a possible liberation from the shackles of dogma. The Sufi seeks illumination, finding God and losing self in the process. For a religion that is more than a millennium old, it remains as relevant today as at any point in its long and distinguished history.

FAQing Hell!

Although we can all agree that games with tricky puzzles have their place, not every player wants to scratch their head and be stuck on a problem during their playing time. And yet, an astonishing number of games have no provisions in their design to help the player through to the end, and it is difficult to estimate just how many players turn to a FAQ when the frustration of being stuck becomes overwhelming. While it is a great relief that gaming resources like FAQs exist, do we not have an obligation as game makers to ensure that players can complete the games they want to play without having to turn to FAQs for help? 

Firstly, it is necessary to be clear that this is not an argument against puzzle play, by which I mean the kind of play inherent to adventure games and their kin. I had the privilege of working with Gregg Barnett on two classic point and click adventures, and on Ghost Master (which also used some puzzle play), and I have a great deal of admiration for Gregg’s instincts in constructing and auditing puzzles. A good puzzle is immensely satisfying for players preferring a certain play style, although regrettably the commercial prospects for this play style have become increasingly marginalised.

But a large number of games being made are targeting a broad audience, and these mass market games must be careful when using puzzle elements – and even more careful that the course of action is always clearly defined, otherwise just progressing in the game becomes a bad puzzle. If a gamer hobbyist gets frustrated by being stuck in a game, they may turn to a FAQ – but do casual players know to do this? If they get stuck, they must either purchase a game guide, or give up on the game entirely. I’m not convinced that either outcome is acceptable. 

I suggest that when targeting a broad audience we should avoid sending the player to FAQing hell, as exemplified by the following FAQ ups.

Where am I supposed to be? 

If progress through the game requires the player to be in a particular place, the player needs to be communicated this fact clearly. The safest option in a mass market game is to spell this out with no ambiguity, as with the event circles in the Grand Theft Auto games, although a more elegant alternative may be to have a funnelling system which guides the player to where they should be (as discussed in Game Writing: Narrative Skills for Videogames) such as dialogue from one or more characters which guide the player towards their next destination.

Some ideas for letting the player know where they are supposed to be are more effective than others. For instance, in Project Zero/Fatal Frame 3, an old film visually shows the player four locations they are expected to visit. But this relies on the player recognising the locations, which is actually rather unlikely in a game where many locations look alike. The net result is the player mostly ends up searching at random for the four locations. After watching the film, it might have been nice to mark the map with the locations the player is supposed to recognise. 

What am I supposed to do?

Similarly, the player may be in the right place but not understand what they are supposed to be doing. The most dangerous repercussion of this is when the player, failing to establish what is expected of them, assumes they are in the wrong place and then begins searching for where they should be. Frustration must surely result.

Explicitly marking task locations on the map can help avoid the second problem, and the first can be obviated by a task list which specifies the objectives the player has been assigned. 

However, it is often the case that the task the player is supposed to be completing consists of a number of smaller constituent tasks. For instance, in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, when the player reaches the Forest Temple, they can be certain they are in the right place (because of the fuss made upon arrival, the fact that it is an entirely new location, and the sure knowledge that dungeons are played in linear sequence) and that their task lies inside – but it is not necessarily clear how to get inside. The player must work out that the hookshot, which until now is only used on specially marked targets, can be used on the wooden trees here.

In this instance, excessive frustration is prevented by the effort the game makes to emphasise that the player is on the right track. Use of camera cases (short establishing shot-style cut scenes) and audio themes can help communicate to the player they are following the designated trail along the spine of the game. 

Constituent tasks may be a problem because constantly identifying them will prove tiresome. However, one possibility is to mark them on the map (perhaps with a ‘?’) when they are encountered – at least this way, the player can have some confidence that they are in the right place.

It is worth considering the use of emphasising tricks (such as the camera cases and audio themes used in a Zelda game) to reassure the player is on track. Silent Hill marked everything of interest the player found onto the map, producing one of the most supportive map systems we have seen. In the Project Zero/Fatal Frame games, the player knows they are on track because while they are walking along the spine of the game, they trigger spooky ghost encounters. It is a shame that these are not marked on the map so that the player could use them more explicitly to follow the trail. 

Where is the thing I’m looking for?

Closely related to both of the above are situations when the player is stuck searching for an object (or equivalent) needed to progress. Again, a funnelling mechanism such as a helpful character may help, but this can become patently ridiculous in many situations. 

One solution is to mark the map with areas successfully searched (crossing them out, perhaps) so that the player can tell they have finished in a particular area – as typified by the map marking in Resident Evil Zero, for instance, which changes the colour of the room on the map when it has been completely searched.

Another option is to provide the player with a tool that helps them locate the items in question; this can be provided at a cost to the player, such that they can use this as a “get out clause”. For instance, in a game with magic, a spell can be provided at a cost in game resources to guide the player to the destination. (In a sci fi setting, a gadget can do the same job). Players will want to avoid the cost, but at least it is there as an emergency option when necessary. 

Total Information Puzzles

Another way to avoid these problems, although one that I don’t necessarily favour, is to provide the player with total information puzzles only – that is, to block the player’s path with puzzles for which everything they need to solve them is provided in full in each case. The player then simply solves the “mini-game” puzzle to progress. Something like The Dig exemplifies this approach, although there were many other adventure games which also used this approach.

It has recently fallen out of favour, probably because the commercial prospects for puzzle play have apparently decreased. 

Conclusion

The basic guidelines for environmental exploration games seeking to target a broad market (one where being stuck on puzzles cannot be guaranteed to be desirable) may be termed as follows: 

1. State clear objectives
2. Guide towards target locations
3. Emphasise the spine as the player progresses
4. Use the map to communicate effectively with the player
5. Provide supporting plot devices at a cost, for when all else fails

However, ultimately all these preparations are no substitute for blind testing – the only definitive way to determine where the spine of your game is not being communicated clearly is to watch people playing your game, and observe where and how they become stuck. A little frustration is perhaps acceptable, but don’t send your players to FAQing hell if you can help it. 

What do you think? Do you have anecdotes of frustration with a game sending you to FAQs, or causing you to give up? Or conversely do you object to a game ‘nannying’ you with too much assistance? Please share your viewpoint in the comments.

Autumn

October already; I can scarcely believe Summer is behind us. More disrupted blogging this week, as I am off to London once again this Thursday. Should be able to get two or three posts up before then, though. A few random notes:

• As officially confirmed in the comments to this blog, it seems an OS X version of Reluctant Hero is not out of the question. Of course, first we must secure a publisher!
• My chipped PlayStation stopped working again. Fortunately, I don't have any import games left to play right now, having given up on the glacially slow Front Mission 4, and the PS3 is thankfully going to be region free. I wonder if the backwards compatiblity will also be region free? Anyone know?
• I'm watching Fruits Baskets at the moment, and thoroughly enjoying it. Finally, an anime show I can watch with my wife - much as I enjoy giant fighting robots or animated demon pornography, it's nice to see an anime with a tender heart.
• To celebrate Ramadan, I will be putting up a post about Sufism (one of my five religions) later this week. I've been meaning to do this for a while but haven't got around to it until now.
• Watched Little Miss Sunshine at the cinema this weekend and found it an utterly charming comedy, with a touch of cultural subversion thrown in for good measure. I guess this is an indie movie, but it cost $8 million to make. That's an indie budget in films? That's a mass market budget in games. Makes you think.

Hope you're enjoying the colours of Autumn, unless you're in the Southern hemisphere, in which case enjoy the onset of Spring!